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��ࡱ�>�� ;=��:��'` �R��+bjbj"9"926@S@S�"�� 8N b ,� � � � � � � � vxxxxxx$;h�:�-�� 4��|�� v�v�� v P �֩E� j|b�0��H� 2� H0�� X� � � ��DR�R�� The origin and development of Journalism Education The school of journalism with an emphasis on practical training is an American invention; it has not established a strong foothold in other nations with market economies. In Western Europe even today, little support is evidenced for practical journalism at institutions of higher learning. Attempts to follow the U.S. model of �nuts-and-bolts� training in Third World have been frustrated by economic and political pressures. There, too, the European model, which relies on on-the-job training, serves as a counterweight. The difference on the two sides of the Atlantic can be attributed in large measure to the difference in the financial structure of the press. In the United States, where advertising revenues have long represented the chief financial support of the press, political �independence� was early seen as a virtue. Because advertisers are not eager to publish their notices in press vehicles that represent opposing political viewpoints, they are more likely to pour their revenues into the coffers of political independents or those supporting their own views. In Europe, the news media are far more partisan than in the United States and have traditional adopted open political stands, often serving as outright instruments of political parties. European governments regularly challenge, and even threaten, news media that attack them and their powerful economic interests. Similarly, reacting against criticism of themselves or their interest in pro-government media, German political and economic elites have lent strong support to a campaign to �privatize� German television. Organs of the opposition in Germany and elsewhere were less interested in maximizing advertising revenue than in political persuasion. The publishers, in these cases, sought to recruit staff members whose politics they shared rather than those who possessed the skills of writing, editing, layout design, and headline writing, which could be taught on the job. In Great Britain, as in Germany and France, publishers have long been inclined to recruit staff members from university programs in economics �politics, or even Latin and Greek. Few European universities publish student newspapers; Oxford students are among the few who have put out their own paper. The American influence has been greater in Latin America and the Far East than in Europe, and number of university journalism programs have developed in Asia and South America; an increasing number are appearing also in Africa and the Middle east; but in all these cases, training is more likely to stress journalism history and philosophy, theory, and methodology rather than the practical skills. The earliest-known program of journalism instruction at a university occurred in England in the mid-nineteenth century. By today�s standards, these were curious patterns of instruction. Some schools, such as the University of Birmingham, tried in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to make journalism training stick; but it was an off-and-on proposition never providing much hands-on practice. More intriguing was the �training� at Balliol College at Oxford University, which became a place for aspiring young newsmen (never, of course, newswomen). Only elite and daring young men considered journalism a career in the 1850s, when Balliol became famous as a springboard for journalists. The idea was that young men would learn the world at the feet of the distinguished scholars in the classics. They would chat with the great men as they took their afternoon constitutionals, walking along the banks of canals, commenting during pauses among the showy, splashy colors of spring flowers about the subtleties of international politics. That was all they needed, it was said, to make a distinguished name for themselves on Fleet Street or in India�s sunny climes. After most of these young men died in the trenches in World War I, the plebeian University of London began journalism training in the 1920s. However, the training was not markedly practical. The students did take one seminar in �Practical Journalism�, styled somewhat after the American model; however, that instruction was lost in a sea of required courses in English literature, politics, principles of criticism, and a course titled �Economic and Social Structure of Today�---a far remove from the American model. Despite the University of London program, a Royal Commission on the Press, active in the years after World War 2 at the same time as the Hutchins Commission, condemned British education for not providing enough training in writing and editing. The developing of journalists in France followed a similar pattern. As a result, the eyes of aspiring young journalists in the Asian and African colonies of both Britain and France were turned to London and Paris as guideposts, at least during the colonial era and in the early years of independence. Later, they turned to both the United States and the former Soviet Union as models. Although journalism education did not begin in the United States, it was out of the special political and economic climate of the United States that it arose and flourished and from where it was exported to all part of the world, where it underwent local transformation in response to differences in political, economic, and even social involvement. In the United States, schools of journalisms appeared as the ideas of progressivism and populism were at their zenith, especially in the Mideast, where the movement for journalism schools began. In the early twentieth century, the Whig interpretation of history was universal: Every day and in every way, things were getting better. Still, while capitalism was certainly morally superior to the oligarchies of Europe and the communism of Soviet Russia, there was always room for improvement and progress; and the press marched in the vanguard of the preachers of improvement and progress. The word that went forth from the journalism schools was that the press was destined to help lead the way to a bright tomorrow in which unlimited years of progress lay ahead. The muckrakers were the heroes, and the code of the watchdog was holy writ. Thus, the students who emerged from journalism schools were automatically tub-thumpers for progress and watchdoggery. They also championed financing newspapers and magazines by advertisements and not by government; advertisers were seen as uninterested in political issues and unlikely to seek to exercise control over content. If advertisers ever tried to do so, they were to be spanked sharply and reminded of who ran the papers and what the mission of the press was. The standard was to keep the advertiser and the business manager in the boardroom, not in the newsroom; it was a standard given clear expression by no less a figure than Joseph Pulitzer, the patron saint of schools of journalism. In post-World War I America, the good life was available for the taking. Americans needed no new consciousness, no Communist party in order to achieve the good life. Indeed, they needed no party at all; they could do it alone. What had beckoned millions of European immigrants in the nineteenth century was for native-born Americans as well a land of unlimited opportunity. It was at this time that journalism first became an academic discipline in American colleges and universities. Joseph Pulitzer offered to endow a journalism program at Columbia University in 1903, but it took a while for the details to be worked out, and his graduate School of Journalism did not open its doors until 1912. The first journalism school in actual operation, therefore, was at the University of Missouri, where Walter Williams, a veteran newspaper editor backed by publishers, was installed as dean in 1908. William�s curriculum was dominated by practical studies---reporting, feature writing, and advertising---and the course of study was centered on practical experience gained in working for the newspaper published by the students. At the rival University of Wisconsin, Dean Willard Bleyer, a professor of English, followed a somewhat different path. His department did not establish a student newspaper and emphasized instead a program of general education, particularly in writing and the social sciences that, as reported in history of the university, was viewed as �of greater usefulness in developing journalists than preoccupation with artisan training.� Disputes over which is more valuable for journalists, practical training or general knowledge, have not ceased to this day. Even so, little difference between the two approaches can be found with regard to the basic ideological underpinnings of journalism. It is important to take note of the time when these journalism schools were established. Both the Missouri and the Wisconsin approaches saw the world through the prism of capitalism and progressivism. 234< > � � opwx��LN}��./uv��'��&'�� óóóóóóóóóóóóóã�ңңңóóóóóóóóãң�ã�hj�hb5�OJQJnHtHhj�hbOJQJnHo(tHhj�hbOJQJnHtH"hj�hb5�OJQJnHo(tHhb5�OJQJnHo(tHhj�hb5�OJQJ@34p�' �${%*�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+��$��d��WD�`��a$gdb $d��a$gd�t� $d��a$gdb�+�+��!�!�!�!�"�"�"#�$�$z%{%�%�% &&�&�&�&�&�'�'g(h(�)***++�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+��о��୥��hdhbhjhUh�DAhbOJQJnHo(tH"hj�hb5�OJQJnHo(tHhj�hb5�OJQJnHtHhj�hbOJQJnHtHhj�hbOJQJnHo(tH;�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+�+��$��d��WD�`��a$gdb &dP��gd�t� 01�82P��. ��A!�"�#��$��%��S�� @@��@ bck�e CJOJQJ_HaJmH sH tH $A��$ ؞��k=�W[SOBi��B nf�h� �1Table��WordDocument��26SummaryInformation(��*DocumentSummaryInformation8��2CompObj��m�� FMicrosoft Office Word �ĵ� MSWordDocWord.Document.8�9�q

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