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��ࡱ�>�� '` �R�w�bjbj"9"9?�@S@SX�� |||8�,�D��;B00000hhh%8'8'8'8d�8l�9lc;$$=h�?`�;�[-dh[-[-�; 004�;y7y7y7[- l0�0%8y7[-%8y7y7x,�y70$ P��yF�|i5y7�7l�;0�;y7�?�6��?y7�?�y7@h�`�y7Z$�V(hhh�;�;7^hhh�;[-[-[-[-��|��|�� Unit 7 Modern Press: Origin and Political history This part, in tracing the development of the modern Chinese press, its role, and the degrees of freedom of the press during different historical periods from 1815 until the present time, covers a similar period to the previous chapter. However, the story it tells is very different. Western studies on Chinese journalism can be traced back to the 1920s when the first group of American journalism researchers showed interest in the Chinese press. Pioneering works include Don D. Patterson, �The Journalism of China� (1922), Y. P. Wang, The Rise of the Native Press in China (1924) and H. J. Timperloy, The Beginnings of Journalism in China (1930). Patterson reviewed briefly the development of Chinese journalism from ancient times to the 1920s and recorded details of the existing Chinese newspapers at that time. Y. P. Wang provided a short discussion on the progress of the Chinese newspapers with particular reference to legal aspects, advertising and circulation. About this book, it is said, �for the first time, Chinese journalism has been introduced to the English speaking world�. Timperloy also dealt with the early history of the Chinese press. His work was followed by Roswell S. Britton, Chinese Periodical Press, 1800 -1911 (1933), a special study of the indigenous periodical press during a period when modern journalism was emerging. Britton�s contribution is especially significant, in that he not only provided a detailed account of prominent figures of the Chinese press, such as Wang Tao and Liang Qichao, but also analysed the relationship between the native press and Western journalism. Some important statements by Chinese journalists were also first translated by Britton. The period between the 1940s and the 1960s was quiet for Western studies on the Chinese press. In the 1970s, Government Control of the Press in Modern China 1900-1949 by Lee-Hsia Hsu Ting, contributed further to the study of this field, with special emphasis on the government role in the press development during the first half of the 20th century. More works emerged during the 1980s, including Adrian A. Bennett, Missionary Journalism in China: Young J. Allen and His Magazines, 1860-1883 (1983), P. P. Liu, How China is Ruled (1986), Patricia Stranahan, Moulding the Medium: the Chinese Communist Party and the Liberation Daily (1990), Chin-Chuan Lee (ed.), Voices of China: The Interplay of Politics and Journalism (1991) and Won Ho Chang, Mass Media in China: the History and Future (1989). Comprehensive Western studies of the Chinese press have not been undertaken, and the limited available references are mostly dynasty and period research or focused on specific issues. There is a great shortage of studies on the general history of the Chinese press. Dr. Won Ho Chan provides a chapter �Historical Background�, perhaps the only study which contains a general review of Chinese press history from ancient times to 1989; it is, however, weak in theoretical analysis. Existing Western studies generally reveal an ignorance of the development of communist newspapers and contain superficial analysis, if any. The newspapers of the People's Republic of China normally are simply labelled "propaganda tools" without substantial analysis. Sometimes one-sided observations, if not bias, are involved. Incorrect assessment also occurs. For example, when discussing the People's Daily, in his book Global Journalism: A Survey of the World's Mass Media (1983) John C. Merrill states: The People's Daily carries no comics, sports, or entertainment news or divergent political opinions... This is completely false and misrepresents the actual situation. Ever since it was established in the late 1940s, the People�s Daily has had comics, sports and entertainment news in its special columns for literature, arts and sports. The paper also publishes divergent political opinions, although, as is widely known, this does not happen most of the time and the divergent political opinions are often published under specific conditions, i.e. they are quoted in order to substantiate attacks on such opinions. Most Western scholars have emphasised the propaganda function of the Chinese press but have ignored other aspects, for example its value as a social communication medium. The substantial changes which took place in newspapers during the post-Mao period (particularly 1978-1989) have not received adequate attention. Before the changeover of 1949, a few press histories were written by Chinese scholars. The most important are: Ge Gongzhen, History of Chinese Journalism (Zhongguo baoxueshi; 1927), Lin Yutang, A History of the Press and Public Opinion in China (1936). They provide reliable information about the Chinese press during relevant periods. A number of books on newspaper history were published in the People�s Republic of China (PRC), such as Fang Hanqi, History of the Modern Chinese Press (Zhongguo jindai baokanshi; 1981), Fang Hanqi and Others, A Brief History of Chinese Journalism (Zhongguo xinwen shiye jianshi; 1983), Li Longmu, A Draft of the History of Chinese Journalism (Zhongguo xinwen shiye shi chugao; 1985), Zheng Kuang (ed) Contemporary Journalism (Dangdai xinwenxue; 1987), Fang Hanqi and Cheng Yeshao, History of Contemporary Chinese Journalism 1949-1988 (Dangdai xinwen shiye shi 1949-1988; 1992) and Zhang Tao, The Journalism History of the People's Republic of China (Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xinwenshi; 1992). Although these books provide information about Chinese newspaper development in the modern era, they are strongly influenced by prevailing Party attitudes and policies. Studies on modern Chinese newspapers by both Western and Chinese scholars reveal two major problems: first, limited information and the lack of any comprehensive historical studies which include the press development to present times; second, analytical weakness and instances of bias. Therefore, in this Chapter, while discussing the general development of the Chinese press until the 1990s, both Western and Chinese references are carefully assessed and selected, and the author's own observations are given. Section One is a brief review of ancient Chinese newspapers and their "official" features. Section Two is about the emergence of the first modern Chinese newspapers. Western influence, especially that of the missionary press, is emphasised. In the 1870s two major trends emerged in the development of the Chinese press: some papers operated purely for profit and others mainly for propaganda and the airing of political views. Section Three discusses these changes. Some well-known journalists such as Wang Tao and Liang Qichao and early theories of Chinese journalism also are discussed. Section Four is a study of a famous case of sedition in modern Chinese journalism. It also draws attention to the significant government suppression of the press at that time. Section Five provides a discussion of the general development of the Chinese press during the period 1920 to 1949. This period covers the May Fourth Movement, the rise of communism, the Sino-Japanese War and the struggle between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communists. The Chinese press, strangled by continual warfare and mired by political struggles, developed with great difficulty and became further politicised. Since 1949, the Chinese press on the mainland has been solely controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (The CCP). Consequently the role of the press became much clearer: it was a propaganda instrument of the CCP. Section Six provides an account of the development of the Chinese press in the communist regime. The typical newspaper structure is depicted to show the processes and procedures of communist propaganda. This section also discusses communist journalism, based on statements on the role of the press by leading communist figures such as Marx, Engels, Lenin and Mao Zedong. Pointing out that the principle of the communist press is that "the press must be the Party's mouthpiece", this section briefly examines the role of the Chinese press during each major upheaval. The chapter argues that freedom of the press in China is still unrealised; it is a goal which has never been achieved in any period of Chinese history. Generally speaking, the major role of the Chinese press to date has been as a political propaganda instrument. In the final analysis, press freedom is based on political democracy. A system in which a high level of ideological control exists can not tolerate press freedom. However, China is changing, both economically and politically, and this has brought some ray of hope for the future of the Chinese press. 1. Official Newspapers: A Brief Review The modern Chinese press came into being at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It had a particular feature in that it did not appear on its own national basis but was introduced by Western journalism, even though at that time the Chinese press already had a very long history. As early as the Han Dynasty (206 B.C - 220 A.D.) China had produced the Court Gazette (Di bao), an imperial court publication, which contained mainly the Emperor's instructions and orders, imperial court regulations and some official reports. The Court Gazette has been noted by many press historians both from China and Western countries, in books and articles such as "The Journalism of China" by Don D. Patterson (1922), History of Chinese Journalism by Ge Gongzhen (1927), The Chinese Periodical Press 1800-1911 by Dr. Roswell S Britton (1931), The Newspaper: An International History by Anthony Smith (1979) and Moulding the Medium: the Chinese Communist Party and the Liberation Daily by Patricia Stranahan (1990). Most scholars believe that it was during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) that the Court Gazette became a regular publication. An original Dunhuang version of the Court Gazette has been kept in the British Museum since 1960. It is believed to be one of the earliest newspaper records in the world. As an official paper, the Court Gazette carried neither social news nor commentary and was read only among officials. Most readers belonged to the central and local governments or were members of the families of high ranking officials. Because it was not for the public, some scholars have argued that the Court Gazette should not be categorised as a newspaper. Chinese history reveals an almost continuous thread of political measures to exercise control over public opinion. This can be traced back to very early times, during the period of the First Emperor Qinshihuang (221 B.C.-210 B.C.) who maintained his power through harsh tyrannical measures. In 213 B.C. he ordered that all books, except for the Qin History and some medical books, be burned. The following year, he gave the order for over one hundred dissident scholars to be buried alive. As for the press generally, it had been under severe official control from the time of its inception. Until 1815, there was only the official press, as the governments did not allow a private one to exist. During the Song Dynasty (960-1127), printing began to be used in China and an unofficial bulletin called Small Sheet (Xiao bao) appeared. This paper provided some information about the activities of the imperial court to the local officials and some intellectuals. However, Small Sheet was regarded by the government as illegal. It was frequently suppressed and it could not develop. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the publication of the Court Gazette was still strictly controlled by the government. Information on natural disasters and rebellions could not be published. However, during this period, some private publishing houses began printing official reports and documents under government supervision. Since these publishing houses were located in the capital Peking, the official publication was called Peking Gazette (Jing bao), which retained a character similar to that of the Court Gazette. By this time, moveable type was being widely used in printing and publications began to be sold to the public. By the time of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) the Peking Gazette was published every day, with seven to fifteen pages. Its daily circulation was ten thousand. Roswell S. Britton has recorded. These gazettes were issued by various publishers under various names, printed in various formats on various grades of paper, and sold at correspondingly various prices; but all were alike in that they contained only official communiques released by the throne through an office of Nei Ko, the Inner Cabinet or Grand Secretariat at the imperial palace in Peking. The only difference in the contents of various gazettes was in their selection of documents. No fundamental change was made to the official nature of the Peking Gazette except that its readership had expanded from just officials to upper-class and business people. The common people were still excluded. However, the number of official papers grew significantly during the late Qing Dynasty. At the turn of the twentieth century, there were more than one hundred official papers. These included the central government papers such as the Political Gazette (Zhengzhi guanbao), local government papers in different provinces such as Northern Official Gazette (Beiyang guanbao) and Southern Official Gazette (Nanyang guanbao), as well as papers run by government departments such as Trade Gazette (Shangwu guanbao) by the Ministry of Trade and Education Gazette (Jiaoyu guanbao) by the Department of Education. A popular explanation for the expansion of official papers is that, at times of political and economic crisis, the ruling group wanted to improve its relationship with society, so that it could continue to control the country. Newspapers were regarded as an effective medium of communication to society. As Northern Official Gazette, one of the official papers said in its first issue, "understanding between the government and people cannot be achieved without the help of newspapers." China's many defeats by the West since the Opium Wars 1839-42 had taught officialdom the importance of Western knowledge and technology. Therefore, foreign information including news, politics, economics and science became a constant theme in official newspapers. However, official information still dominated. For example, an edition of the Qing Government daily, the Political Gazette, was structured as follows: 1. The Emperor's instructions and his activities. 2. Information from foreign countries, mainly news from Western news agencies. 3. The ministers' submissions. 4. New policies and regulations. 5. Translations of foreign information on politics, economics, law and culture. In their studies on the official press in the late Qing Dynasty, �A Study of Official Press in Late Qing", Wang Ruzhu and Sun Bingchuan have summarised the features of the official papers at this stage: ...all editing was according to the ruler's instructions; the approach of the editor was to praise the wisdom and power of the ruler and to emphasise the peaceful situation in the country; the news mainly consisted of the Emperor's instructions and the activities of the imperial court with very little other information. The government gazette was also authorised to publish legal notices. Its circulation was guaranteed ( each government institution had to subscribe to the official paper. In this way its circulation was kept high. It was not unusual for a local government paper to have a circulation of 5 000 copies each issue compared with 7 000 to 9 000 copies for the paper published by the central government. Despite the existence of the Court Gazette and later the Peking Gazette, which constituted the only press in China, official restrictions and control prevented the development of a popular press as in Western countries. In 1927, Ge Gongzhen addresses this phenomenon: in Western countries, the official press was aimed at the people, but in China, it was for official eyes only. The principal aim of the Chinese newspapers was "to stop the people from discussing politics, in order that the ruler could control them." Ge Gongzhen's view is confirmed by Anthony Smith and he concluded that: Even though the Chinese had produced the essential technical prerequisites of the newspaper in its European guise before the year 1500, the Chinese press was very slow to develop. Ink, paper, printing, moving letters and metal type were used in China long before the first relacioun or coranto appeared in Europe, but for the public, printed and periodical distribution of news did not begin until European traders and missionaries started foreign-language newspapers on the Chinese mainland, for their own purposes, in the nineteenth century. The ancient official papers perished with the fall of the Qing dynasty which ended the imperial system in China in 1911. From the beginning of the nineteenth century, two kinds of press, official and non-official, existed concurrently: while official papers dominated the Chinese press, a popular press developed rapidly alongside it. It was during this period that the modern Chinese press emerged and grew to maturity. 2. The First Modern Chinese Newspapers and Western Influence Chinese and Western historians generally agree that the establishment of the modern Chinese press was heavily influenced by Western journalism. When European traders and missionaries flourished on the China coast at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Catholic missionaries had already published books and tracts there, but it was not until 1815 that the first Chinese periodical, the Chinese Monthly Magazine (Cha shisu mei yue tongji zhuan), was born. The establishment of the Chinese Monthly Magazine resulted from the expansion of missionary power in China. The magazine was run by Robert Morrison (1782-1834) and William Milne (1785-1822), both from the London Missionary Society. In 1807, Robert Morrison, a Protestant, came to Canton to preach Christianity. He was then one of only three Europeans with a good command of Chinese. His missionary work faced two pressures: in Canton, printing was strictly controlled and the Chinese government was very strict about Western religions. The Catholic establishment had already grown strongly in the nearest port, Macao. Morrison selected Malacca to establish the Anglo-Chinese College for "reciprocal cultivation of Chinese and European literature" and it was there that he started a magazine. Morrison and Milne as editors used Chinese names. Morrison used �Boai zhe� (�One who loves many�), and Milne used �Yudi Milian� (�Your humble brother�). 3. The Press: Profit-Orientation and Political Organ During the 1870s, two major trends began to emerge in the Chinese press: some papers operated purely for profit and some mainly for propaganda and the airing of political views. The first group of papers developed apace. Most were owned by foreigners, with a Chinese editorial management. A typical example is Shen bao in Shanghai. It was founded in 1872 by a British proprietor, Frederick Major (1837-1908), a businessman who had spent some years in China before starting the paper. He employed many Chinese scholars as editors and gave them editorial control. In the first issue, the editor announced: ...When we cast about for something which records and narrates modern events in a style simple though not vulgar, and which reports current affairs concisely yet in sufficient detail so that scholars and officials as well as farmers, artisans, traders and merchants all can understand, we find nothing so suitable as the newspaper. Publication of newspapers originated among Westerners, and has been introduced into China. .... Now we emulate the idea, and establish the Shen bao here in Shanghai. The lead article stated that the newspaper would contain news on the political situation of the empire, changing customs, important developments in foreign relations, business fluctuations, and all that would evoke surprise and astonishment and pleasure or refresh the public ear. It continued: We shall apply our best efforts to convey only reliable news, and without misrepresentation: also to make the news understandable. We shall not indulge in shallow or vainglorious talk, or write about ghosts and magic. Those interested in current affairs may get from our paper the gist of daily events, and those engaged in business will not be misled by any reports in our paper. Aimed at making a profit, Shen bao pledged that it would "cover all major events that happened in China without delay". For this, the paper employed reporters in the major cities including Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hankou, a procedure at the time not widespread in the Chinese press. Shen bao always sent its correspondents to the news scene. For example, the coverage of the Formosa Massacre in June 1874, the Korea coup in July, 1882, and the Sino-French War in March, 1884, were among the earliest war reports in Chinese journalism. Shen bao also became famous for its use of modern communication facilities. Its publication of the news item "The British Reshuffle Cabinet" on 30 January 1874, has been acknowledged as the first publishing of a cable news item to appear in a Chinese newspaper. The cable lines had just opened in China and as soon as the telegraph line between Shanghai and Tianjin was connected in December 1881, Shen bao was quick to use it in the issue of 16 January 1882 to publish the story of an official punished by the imperial court. When telegraph connection was made to Beijing in 1884, the paper immediately began to get the more important information by wire, thus gaining a substantial advantage over the Peking Gazette. 4. The Su bao Case and the Restriction of The Press The reform and revolutionary press seriously threatened the Qing Government. The rulers strove to suppress the press, particularly at the beginning of the twentieth century when the movements were becoming dominant. Many cases of suppression occurred and the first press law was made during this period. The Su bao case, which took place in Shanghai in 1903, has been generally regarded as the first sedition case in modern Chinese journalism. Su bao was launched by a Japanese businessman in 1896. In 1900, the paper was sold to Cheng Fang, a Chinese scholar and reformer, and it became more and more radical. In 1903, Zhang Shizhao became the editor and he boldly published a series of articles attacking the Qing Government and advocating political revolution. On 9 June, the paper published Zhang Taiyan's introduction to Zou Rong's The Revolutionary Army (Geming jun), a pamphlet advocating violent revolution. The introduction reviewed The Revolutionary Army and stressed that its main purpose was to overthrow the Qing rule, encouraging readers to join the revolution. On 29 June, Su bao published an article called "The Relationship between Kang Youwei and Jueluoshi" ("Kang Yuowei yu Jueluoshi zhi guanxi") in which the author called the Emperor by his personal name and attacked him as a "petty thief who cannot distinguish millet from wheat". The Qing government, not surprisingly, was incensed by the insolence of these rebellious articles. At their request, six editors and writers, including Zou Rong and Zhang Taiyan, were arrested by the Shanghai Municipal Police. In July, the paper was ordered to stop publication. Since Su bao was published in the International Settlement, the Qing court could not deal with the case directly. Instead of the prisoners being surrendered to the Chinese government, the case was brought before the Mixed Court in the Settlement. During the court session, while the representative of the Qing Government accused the Su bao of sedition, the editors argued that they were innocent, that the Qing Government should be replaced and that the revolution should be encouraged. In May 1904, after much legal debate, Zou, who later died in prison, and Zhang, who was released in 1906, were sentenced to hard labour for three and two years respectively as well as banishment from the Settlement upon their release from prison. The other four editors were released. Su bao was never permitted to resume publication. 5. The Press: In Turmoil and the Party's Control Although China became a republic after the revolution of 1911, it was still in turmoil. Instead of peace, order and unity, the early Republican years were filled, as Immanuel C. Y. Hsu puts it, with "moral degradation, monarchist movement, warlordism, and intensified foreign imperialism." From 1905 on, a group of Western-influenced intellectuals such as Chen Duxiu (1879-1942), Hu Shi (1891-1962), Li Dazhao (1889-1936) and Lu Xu (1881-1936), who were seeking a further shift away from the traditional Chinese base towards complete Westernisation, began a campaign to introduce a new literature based on the vernacular language instead of the classical. During this campaign which is known generally as the "New Cultural Movement", these scholars advocated Western democracy and science and denounced feudal autocracy, feudal rites and morals, as well as Confucian ethics. Based on many magazines such as New Youth (Xinqingnian), New Tide (Xinchao) and Weekly Review (Meizhou pinglun), their powerful publications, both fiction and non-fiction, soon evoked a national response. The Russian revolution of October 1917 introduced socialist ideas to China. With the promotion of Marxism-Leninism by many leading intellectuals, the New Cultural Movement soon entered a new stage when a patriotic demonstration occurred in central Beijing in 1919. On 4 May 1919, about five thousand students in Beijing held a huge demonstration against the verdict at the Versailles Peace Conference on German concessions on Shandong. Earlier, under popular pressure, the Chinese delegation had put before the conference the "Twenty-one Demands", including one that the various rights previously enjoyed by Germany in Shandong Province and seized by Japan during the war be restored to China. However, the conference refused to accede. This caused an explosion of public anger from workers, businessmen and intellectuals as well as students. Demonstrations and strikes were staged in many major cities. Opposition to imperialism and the Beijing warlord government became strong national themes. The movement pressured the Chinese delegation to Versailles to reject the peace treaty. The "May Fourth Movement" has been called the "first genuine mass movement in modern Chinese history". It was during this movement that a part of the Chinese press once again became an instrument of propaganda. While profit-seeking newspapers kept their "neutral" and "reserved" attitudes and gave little space to the movement, the radical papers, mostly periodicals, showed more vigour and took a major role. Most influential magazines such as New Youth, Weekly Review, and New Tide were based in Beijing, the epicentre of the movement. Many crucial questions such as Western democratic ideas and communism were discussed. Immanuel C.Y. Hsu has described these magazines as: ...an intellectual bombshell. For the first time in China important national and social problems were being publicly discussed and debated. The youth of the country could not wait to read each new issue." As the movement progressed, the promotion of socialism became one of the dominant themes. After the Russian Revolution, the Soviet government proclaimed the abrogation of all unequal treaties concluded by Tsarist Russia with China, and gave up all privileges in China which had been seized by the Tsarist imperialists. They also advocated support of China's movement for national independence. These measures encouraged the immediate interest of the Chinese towards socialism. Li Dazhao, the chief editor of New Youth, one of the founders of the Chinese communist party, published articles introducing the Russian revolution and Marxism. The issue of May 1919, was a special number on Marxism, and this included Li's article entitled "My Understanding of Marxism", briefly expounding Marxist theories. Li predicted that the future China would be a communist country. During the movement, a large number of radical periodicals which aimed to introduce Western democracy and science, promoting a national revolution as well as socialism, sprang up all over the country. These included Xiangjiang Review (Xiangjiang pinglun) established by Mao Zedong in Hunan, Bulletin of the Students' Federation of Tianjin (Tianjin xuesheng lianhehuibao) edited by Zhou Enlai in Tianjin, the Beijing Students' Weekly (Beijing daxuesheng zhoukan) in Beijing, and the Students' Weekly (Xuesheng zhoukan) in Wuhan. While Marxism spread steadily, the first group of Chinese communist publications was produced. In 1920, New Youth became the first Communist Party organ, and it was followed by a number of communist magazines such as the Labour World (Laodongjie) in Shanghai, the Labourers (Laodongzhe) in Guangdong and the Labour Information (Laodongyin) in Beijing. Two weekly party organs, the Labour Weekly (Laodong zhoukan) and the Guidance Weekly (Xiangdao zhoubao) were established in Shanghai in the early twenties. In 1926, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) founded its first daily, Hot Blood Daily (Rexue ribao) in Shanghai. These early communist publications concentrated on propaganda with very few news items. Although they have little significance journalistically, they hold an important place in studies of the development of the Chinese communist press, especially examination of the function of the press as an organ of the Party. The twenties saw a rapid proliferation of Chinese newspapers and magazines. In 1921, there were 1 134 publications nationwide, including 550 dailies. In 1926 the number of dailies reached 628. Meanwhile, 150 newsagencies had been established, although most of them were small operations. By this time, the Chinese newspapers had almost all the features of a modern Western newspaper of the same period, including the internal structure of a newspaper organisation and all other elements. 6. The Communist Regime After 1949 If it is hard to summarise the features of the Chinese press before the revolution of 1949, strangled as it was by continuous war and caught in the mire of political struggles of two competing authoritarian regimes, it is not so difficult to specify the main characteristics of the Chinese press since then. Since the establishment of PRC, the press has been, like all elements of the media, unilaterally manipulated and controlled by the CCP, and in character and function it has been demonstrated to be equally unilateral. It has been a propaganda instrument of the CCP. Soon after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the CCP started to regulate the press by taking over the private papers. As Fang Hanqi and Chen Yeshao indicate, in 1950 fifty-eight individual papers were still in existence, but just one year later, the number was reduced to twenty-five and by the beginning of 1953, no private newspapers existed. In the meantime, a communist newspaper system was established. This system has been steadily and continuously developed until the present time. Under the strict control of the CCP Propaganda Department, this system generally consists of four major parts; namely, the top CCP central organs, regional papers, government department papers and army papers and those run by the mass organisations. 1. The Top CCP News System. This includes a national daily the People's Daily and a national newsagency, New China News Agency (Xinhua tongxunshe) which direct all media enterprises. The People's Daily Since its establishment in 1948, the People's Daily has been the daily organ of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Printed on the same day in printing establishments throughout the country, the paper has an enormous circulation, from 1980 onwards, totalling nearly eight million copies daily. Generally of eight pages, the People's Daily carries news and commentary on pages one and four. Page two is given over to economics and page three features politics, culture and education. Page five is theory, pages six and seven carry international news and features, and page eight has essays. The paper also has some regular columns such as sport, law and finance. The People's Daily has been described as "the equivalent of Pravda in the Soviet Union." Its major role is as a medium to publish the CCP and government decisions, policies, regulations and instructions as well as to interpret them. The editorials are often regarded by the people as a reflection of the latest thinking of the top leadership and are frequently quoted by other papers as a guide. In short, the People's Daily is the most authoritative and widely-read official newspaper. The New China News Agency (NCNA) Being the only official newsagency, NCNA is the news gatekeeper of PRC. The agency transmits all the news from China to foreign nations and all the foreign news to Chinese leaders and the public. It also provides all national news to the provincial and local media. It speaks for the CCP and the government. NCNA has twenty-nine branches in PRC and about one hundred branches throughout the world. With twenty thousand staff, the agency daily provides five thousand words of news to the home country and six thousand words to the world in English, French, Spanish, German, Japanese and Russian. 2. Regional Newspapers Regional papers include provincial and local newspapers run by the local Party committee and the local government. More than four hundred of these are spread throughout the country. As they all act as propaganda instruments for the party, there is no fundamental difference between them and the People's Daily, except for their local colour. 3. Government Department and Army Newspapers Almost every government department runs its own newspaper, such as Chinese Education (National Education Department), China Sports Daily (National Sports Committee) and China Cultural News (National Cultural Department), in order to emphasise its own special features. Most are weekly but some, such as the China Sports Daily which are more popular with a variety of readers, are daily. Founded in 1956 and run by the Chinese Central Military Committee, The People's Liberation Army Daily (Jiefangjun bao) is a national paper published for all the military forces in the country. A basic guiding principle of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is that " The guns must always be controlled by the Party". The People's Liberation Army Daily unquestionably stands on the side of the CCP. Under the guidance of The People's Liberation Army Daily, thirteen army regions also publish their own papers. 4. Mass Organisation Newspapers Representing the group approach to the CCP strategy of social engineering, there are organisations of such social groups as youth, women, workers and intellectuals. The major papers of this type are: Workers' Daily (Gongren ribao). Founded by the All China Workers Federation in 1949, this paper is mainly for the working class. Each copy has four pages and a daily circulation of more than 1 500 000. China Youth Daily (Zhongguo qingnian bao). Published by the Chinese Communist Youth League, this paper is mainly for the young people. Each copy has four pages and a daily circulation of two million. Guangming Daily (Guangming ribao). Founded in 1949, this was originally an organ of the Democratic Alliance, formerly a coalition party of all the minor political parties in China. However, it soon changed direction after the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957 and became a paper concerned with education, culture, history and philosophy. Chinese intellectuals constitute the bulk of its readers. A number of newspapers are run by group organisations but none can exist without the approval of the CCP. As Alan P. L. Liu has summarised the situation: "The substance of the mass media in China is determined by the Communist Party to serve its grand design of mobilising and transforming society. Politics, economics, international news, culture and sport are the most regular themes in the content of the Chinese press. Political news always takes an important position. It normally consists of information about Party and state conferences, the reception of foreign guests by Party leaders, government policies and programs and announcements. The following is an outline of the front page of the People�s Daily of 10 September 1989, consisting of ten news items: 1. Deng Xiaoping talks about the principle of international relationships. 2. Jiang Zemin talks on the further development of the traditional friendship between China and Korea. 3. Sacred duty (editorial). 4. Jiang Zemin meets Professor Zhao Haosheng. 5. Li Ruihua meets representatives of Hong Kong for the National People's Congress while repudiating "bourgeois liberation". 6. The magnificent achievement of building the army for hard work for forty years. 7. More than 48 million people have become members of the CCP. 8. Not to be an official but an ordinary person. 9. Shenyan has been chosen as an economic experimental city. 10. A diplomat meets the French Ambassador to protest about the French police insulting Chinese people who cross the border. Of the ten items above, four are articles about the activities of Party leaders, one is an editorial, and another a political commentary. Items 6, 7 and 8 are also about the Party's activities. Only two items, 9 and 10 are familiar from a Western journalistic perspective. However, such news arrangements are common in Chinese newspapers. For a long time, reports about the Western world were limited and biased. News about the West always appeared as unsavoury: economic crises, workers on strike, race riots, crime and the aggressive nature of capitalism. This, of course, was an attempt to justify the Party's position, to persuade readers to believe that the Western world was self-destructive and that a socialist country is better. The situation changed considerably after 1978 when China adopted an open-door policy. More balanced reports on the West began to appear, although in most cases, they were still carefully scrutinised and selected. Freedom of the press in China is still an unrealised dream. This goal has never been achieved in any period of China's history. Compared with the Western press, China has a long way to go. Freedom of the press, in the final analysis, is based on political democracy. A highly ideologically controlled political system cannot produce freedom of the press. However, economic changes are resulting in gradual social and political changes, and these changes are reflected in all forms of the media, including the press. 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