��ࡱ�>�� km����j��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������'` �R�{bjbj"9"92~@S@S�S�������        ���8 <D /b������"�#��%�(.*.*.*.*.*.*.$w0h�2:N.� �&���&�&N.  ��4�.�,�,�,�& � �(.�,�&(.�,�,  �,�� p02��E���(��,(.�.0/�,3R*3�,3 �,|�&�&�,�&�&�&�&�&N.N.T,X�&�&�&/�&�&�&�&   ��            ���� Unit 11 audience study In the past, readers of technical information were mainly professionals. However, since modern technology has been more and more integrated into people�s daily life and work, readers of technical information have become more miscellaneous Any theory about the media is incomplete if it does not take audiences (or �readers�) into account. To fully assess the media�s role in society we need to study how people �read,� use, and respond to the media. 1 definition of audience The audience is an ephemeral and inherently relational concept. Audiences are defined, at least initially, in relation to texts (films, news bulletins, soap operas) or objects (such as books, radio, or TV sets). Researchers have to decide who constitute a meaningful group of research participants in the context of their particular research aims. The potential audience might include the whole population of a country (or even several countries) or everyone who owns a specific media technology. It might be people who watch a program genre (such as talk shows) or have watched a specific documentary or film. Researchers may opt for large-scale work that aims for a statistically representative sample (a scale of research often necessitating methods such as questionnaires), or they may opt to explore specific fan groups or communities . �Just as people as audiences cannot be separated from personal, social and cultural continuity, so texts cannot be isolated from their broader cultural significance, or from the history of that significance. The audience-text relation is a chimera, which can only ever be apprehended partially. We think we are seeing reality when what we see is more like a holographic reflection, changing as our own point of reference changes and dependent on our ability to see�on the quality of our vision. Audience is a shifty concept. � ------ Nightingale (1996): 2 Features of audience Broadcasting media � television and radio � beam their programs into the air to be caught by anyone with a receiver who happens to be tuned in. One result of our increased ability to analyze the demographics of any audience has been mass media industry efforts to target their messages at special segments of the population. The large nature of the audience of mass communication makes it very difficult to address mass communication messages to specific audience or group of people. This presupposes the fact that messages that undergo mass communication process must be directed to very many people, like the ones sent through mass media of radio, TV, newspapers etc. Heterogeneous By heterogeneous, we mean mass communication messages cannot be segregated. It cannot be directed towards certain people without others hearing it. Every human being, irrespective of age, creed, sex, wealth and affluence get the messages at the same time. mass communication message is not a respecter of any man. It does not have regard for positions, and class. It is for all. Anonymity Messages sent in mass communication are not to be received by a named receiver. It is addressed to whom it may concern. In other words, he who receives the messages is not known to the sender. It is assumed that messages in mass communication are sent to nobody, everybody and somebody. Simultaneity This holds that messages of mass communication are at the disposal of the audience at the same time or simultaneously, or instantly. The word �disposal� is used because, even though the message is available to one, the audience might decide not to expose himself to the message almost immediately, the audience might delay his exposure to such messages for different reasons. This message is often associated with the print media of mass communication like newspapers, magazines and books. A reader might decide not to read the pages of a book almost immediately. The same way someone who got the delivery of fresh news on a daily newspaper early in the morning might delay reading such news till bed time. Hence, the simultaneity in mass communication audience is mostly applicable to messages sent via the broadcast media, but the fact is that everybody is disposed to such message instantaneously. 3 audience research Jenny Kitzinger hold that audience research is embedded in a web of processes involving the socioeconomic conditions of production, disciplinary divisions, academic routines, historical context, knowledge paradigms, and interrelated decisions about questions, foci, and methods of enquiry. 4 The Impetus for Audience Research: Four Spheres of Concern The impetus for empirical research into audiences can be grouped under four broad spheres. Market Imperatives This research scrutinizes and seeks to manage audiences as consumers/ commodities. People are approached as commercial units to be delivered to businesses, advertisers, or media organizations (Ang, 1991). Such research is concerned primarily with measuring audiences, identifying their sociodemographic distribution, and tracking issues such as attention flow and channel loyalty. This often involves audience panels, surveys, and monitoring via electronic means such as the �people meter� or continuous response measurements via handsets (Millard, 1992). Concerns about Morality and Sex �n� Violence This research is concerned with the potential corrupting influence of the media. Much of this work is framed by psychological theories and relies on experimental laboratory-based studies. Such research is often conducted in response to long-running debates about copycat violence that have lasted from the first penny newspaper to the 1990s video nasties controversies. Responses to Technological Developments This research asks questions about the implications of new media and communication devices. In the first part of the 20th century, research focused on cinema or the radio; today, it is more likely to focus on the Internet and interactive digital TV. Although this can involve a very narrow technological focus, such research is often conducted under the broader auspices of anthropology, history, or the sociology of science and technology. Questions about Culture, Politics, and Identity The impetus for research inspired under this rubric is a concern with the media�s role in the public and domestic realm. It examines how the media might frame public understandings and citizenship and how people use media texts and objects in negotiating interpersonal power relations or developing identities, pleasures, and fantasies. Such work includes much of the sociological enquiry into media effects and the cultural studies tradition, as well as questions about the role of media objects as items of domestic technology. The above categories should thus not be seen as cast in stone. In highlighting the different impetus behind research questions, the aim is to encourage reflective approaches to how research is framed and conducted. It would be a mistake to assume that certain areas of substantive enquiry are confined within one sphere. 5 Uses and gratifications theory Uses and Gratifications Theory is an approach to understanding why people actively seek out specific media outlets and content for gratification purposes. The theory discusses how users proactively search for media that will not only meet a given need but enhance knowledge, social interactions and diversion. The basic argument of this theory 1 The audience is active and its media use is goal oriented. 2 People have various uses (needs) they seek to satisfy through media. 3 Audience members take initiative to link need gratification to a specific media. 4 The media compete with other sources for need satisfaction. 5 People have enough self-awareness of their own media use, interests, and motives to be able to provide researchers with an accurate picture of that use. 6 Value judgments of media content can only be assessed by the audience. This theory assumes that members of the audience are not passive but take an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. The theory also holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their needs. The approach suggests that people use the media to fulfill specific gratifications. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for viewers' gratification. Simply say according to this theory, there are Active Audience (Blumler, 1979) in mass communication. Jay Blumler presented a number of interesting points, as to why Uses and Gratifications cannot measure an active audience. He stated, �The issue to be considered here is whether what has been thought about Uses and Gratifications Theory has been an article of faith and if it could now be converted into an empirical question such as: How to measure an active audience?� (Blumler, 1979). Blumler then offered suggestions about the kinds of activity the audiences were engaging with in the different types of media. Utility: media have uses for people and people can put media to those uses. �Using the media to accomplish specific tasks� Intentionality: people's prior motivations determine their consumption of media content. �Occurs when people�s prior motive determine use of media� Selectivity: individual audience members' use of media may reflect their existing interests and preference. �Audience members� use of media reflect their existing interests� Imperviousness to Influence: audience members construct their own meaning from content that then influences what they think and do. They can avoid certain types of media influence�Refers to audience members� constructing their own meaning from media content� Uses and gratifications also distinguishes between activity and activeness to better understand the audience. Activity refers to what the media consumer does. Activeness refers to the audience's freedom and autonomy in the mass communication situation. Activeness is relative: some people are more active, others more passive. Activeness varies within individuals: activeness often varies by time of day and type of content Typologies of Media Use (Consumer Needs) The Uses and Gratifications Theory was developed from a number of prior communication theories and research conducted by fellow theorists. Beginning in the 1940�s, researchers began seeing patterns under the perspective of the uses and gratifications theory in radio listeners. Early research was concerned with topics such as children's use of comics and the absence of newspapers during a newspaper strike. An interest in more psychological interpretations emerged during this time period. One: In 1944 Herta Herzog began to look at the earliest forms of uses and gratifications with her work classifying the reasons why people chose specific types of media. For her study, Herzog interviewed soap opera fans and was able to identify three types of gratifications. The three gratifications categories, based on why people listened to soap operas, were emotional, wishful thinking, and learning. In 1970 Abraham Maslow suggested that Uses and Gratifications Theory was an extension of the Needs and Motivation Theory. The basis for his argument was that people actively looked to satisfy their needs based on a hierarchy. The pyramid hierarchy began on the bottom with Biological/Physical, Security/Safety, Social/Belonging, Ego/Self-Respect and Self-actualization at the top. Maslow�s hierarchy of needs theory was developed by Abraham Maslow. It is a theory that is widely known and recognized and follows a five-level hierarchy format: Physiological. Basic needs that include the need for food, water and shelter Safety. These needs are the desire to feel safe, secure and free from threats. Belonging. This is the need to feel that you are affiliated with other people and accepted by them. Esteem. A desire to have a positive self-image and to be appreciated and valued by other people. Self-actualization. The need to develop our skills and capabilities in order to reach our full potential. Two: McQuail, Blumler & Brown�s Typology of Needs (1972): In 1969 Jay Blumler and Denis McQuail began to study why people watched political program on television. The motive they were able to identify helped lay the groundwork for their research in 1972 and eventually the Uses and Gratifications Theory. In 1972 Denis McQuail, Jay Blumler and Joseph Brown suggested that the uses of different types of media could be grouped into 4 categories. The four categories were: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance. Diversion: escape from daily routines or daily problems Personal relationship: substituting the media for companionship. Personal identity/individual psychology: seeking media to reinforce an individual�s values. Surveillance: seeking information to help an individual accomplish something Three: Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) Need Categories Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) saw mass media as a means by which individuals connect or disconnect themselves with others. They developed 35 needs taken from the largely speculative literature on the social and psychological functions of the mass media and put them into five categories: �� Cognitive Needs: Acquiring information, knowledge and understanding �� Media Examples: Television (news), video (how-to), movies (documentaries or based on history) �� Affective Needs: Emotion, pleasure, feelings �� Media Examples: Movies, television (soap operas, sitcoms) �� Personal Integrative Needs: Credibility, stability, status �� Media Examples: Video �� Social Integrative Needs: Family and friends �� Media Examples: Internet (e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, social media) �� Tension Release Needs: Escape and diversion �� Media Examples: Television, movies, video, radio, internet Four: Rubin s (1981) motivations for viewing television: Alan M. Rubin studies and teaches media uses and effects, political communication, communication in an information society, and research methods and measurement. His work has focused on media news and entertainment, and personal involvement and parasocial interaction with media and media personalities, audience aggression and newer communication technologies. Besides authoring/editing books on communication research, he has published more than 70 chapters and journal articles, and has been identified as a prolific researcher in communication and mass communication. He is past editor of the Journal of Communication and Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. To pass time For companionship For excitement To escape For enjoyment For social interaction For relaxation For information To learn about specific content Five: Lull�s (1990) Typology of Media Use Structural Environmental (background, companionship: background noise; companionship; entertainment) Regulative (punctuation of time and activity; talk patterns) Relational Communication Facilitation (something to talk about: Experience illustration; common ground; conversational entrance; anxiety reduction; agenda for talk; value clarification) Affiliation/Avoidance (something to do together: Physical, verbal contact/neglect; family solidarity; family relaxant; conflict reduction; relationship maintenance) Social Learning (aid in decisions, problems, models: Decision-making; behaviour modelling; problem-solving; value transmission; legitimization; information dissemination; substitute schooling) Competence/Dominance (role aid, authorization: Role enactment; role reinforcement; substitute role portrayal; intellectual validation; authority exercise; gatekeeping; argument facilitation) New Media The application of New Media to the Uses and Gratifications Theory has been positive. The introduction of the Internet, social media and technological advances has provided another outlet for people to use and seek gratification through those sources. Based on the models developed by Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch and Lasswell, individuals can choose to seek out media in one outlet, all falling within the proscribed categories of need. The only difference now, is that the audience does not have to go to multiple media outlets to fulfill each of their needs. The Internet has created a digital library, allowing individuals to have access to all content from various mass medium outlets. New Media Example of Uses and Gratifications Theory In 2007 a study was conducted to examine the Facebook groups users gratifications in relation to their civic participation offline. The Web survey polled 1,715 college students, ranging in age from 18-29, who were members of Facebook groups. The respondents were given 16 statement through an electronic survey and asked �to rate their level of agreement with specific reasons for using Facebook groups, including information acquisition about campus/community, entertainment/recreation, social interaction with friends and family, and peer pressure/self satisfaction.�The Likert scale indicated the 1 was strongly agree and 6 was strongly disagree. To ensure those results were not skewed, the respondents were also asked to complete a set of level of agreement questions to properly gauge their level of life satisfaction. The study ultimately yielded results through principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation. The results showed that there were four needs for using Facebook groups, �socializing, entertainment, self-status seeking, and information.� Socializing: Students interested in talking and meeting with others to achieve a sense of community and peer support on the particular topic of the group �� Entertainment: Students engaged with the groups to amuse themselves �� Self-Seeking: Students maintain and seek out their personal status, as well as those of their friends, through the online group participation �� Information: Students used the group to receive information about related events going on and off campus Uses and Gratifications Model According to Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch's research there were 5 components comprising the Uses and Gratifications Model. The components are: ��  The audience is conceived as active.  In the mass communication process much initiative in linking gratification and media choice lies with the audience member. [11] ��  The media compete with other sources of satisfaction.  Methodologically speaking, many of the goals of mass media use can be derived from data supplied by individual audience members themselves. [13]  Value judgments about the cultural significance of mass communication should be suspended while audience orientations are explored on their own terms.� Theory Criticism Some mass communications scholars have contended that uses and gratifications is not a rigorous social science theory. The data behind the theory is hard to extrapolate and at times is not found. How each audience, individual and group perceives a given media outlet is extremely difficult to gauge. A main argument lies in how the media, producers and editors want the material to be interpreted. Morley (1992) says that �creators of media content have a preferred reading that they would like the audience to take out of the text. However, the audience might reject it, or negotiate some comprise interpretation between what they think and what they text is saying, or contest what the text says with some alternative interpretation� . The biggest issue for the Uses and Gratifications Theory is its being non-theoretical, vague in key concepts, and nothing more than a data-collecting strategy.  T U \ ] l m � � � � � � @ A KMNj��� .����dx��3G"#/���°����������ఞ{���ఏ�g�g�g���g���&hK&�h�"�5�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ&hK&�h�"�6�CJKHOJQJ\�aJhK&�h�"�CJOJQJaJ#hK&�h�1.CJKHOJQJ\�aJ#hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJ\�aJhK&�hK&�CJaJo(#hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJaJo( hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJaJhK&�hZqbCJOJQJaJ( � � � ? @ Oj�� .������������������������d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&��8d��7$8$H$WD`�8gdK&� d��7$8$H$gdK&� d����gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&�gdK&�$d����a$gdK&��z{����dx���3Gs�>�) <"="#�#�$�$7%~%���������������������� d����gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&� d����gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&�/0s�>�) #�#�$�$�)�)�*�*d+e+�+�+�+�+%,&,�,�,�,�,�-�-�-�-�/�/�1�17X7b:�:�@lAEE8E�H�HiK�K�L�L�M�M�O�O�O�O�������۶��������������������������������ۤ�������������&hK&�hK&�5�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ#hK&�hK&�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJaJ&hK&�h�"�5�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ#hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ#hK&�h�1.CJKHOJQJ\�aJ8~%�%&�&�&�&�()+�+',�,�-G.y.�.#/�/�/�/:0����������������������d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&����(�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�(�gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&�:0�1�113�4P5�5�5P6�6777#7X7O8<9u9�9:���������������������d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&� d��7$8$H$gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&����(�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�(�gdK&��hd��7$8$H$WD�`�hgdK&�:a:b:i:�:�;�<^=�=D>�>�>\?@n@�@�@AlATDvD�D�D�DEE E�������������������������� d��7$8$H$gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&� E-E8E�E�E�E�F.G�G�H�H�HhKiK�K�N�O�PXQxRNS�����������������������*�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�*�gdK&����(�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�(�gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&���d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&��O�O�O�P�P\QtQ|R�RPS�S�T�T�T�T�T�T�U�UVVpVrVvVxV�W�W�W�WeXfXiXzX"Z#ZZ[[[�[t�w�y�y�y�y(z)z�z�z�z�z{{{{{{{{{�������������������������������������������������������hK&�hV?jhV?UhK&�hn8�CJOJQJaJ hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJaJU#hK&�h�1.CJKHOJQJ\�aJ&hK&�h�"�5�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ#hK&�h�"�CJKHOJQJ\�aJ:NSPS�S�T�TVvV�WhXiXzX�X Z�["u(v�w�w�y�y�y����������������������d��7$8$H$WD�`��gdK&��hd��7$8$H$WD�`�hgdK&����(�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�(�gdK&����*�d��7$8$H$WD<�^��`�*�gdK&�Using this sociologically-based theory has little to no link to the benefit of psychology due to its weakness in operational definitions and weak analytical mode. It also is focused too narrowly on the individual and neglects the social structure and place of the media in that structure. Due to the individualistic nature of Uses and Gratification theory, it is difficult to take the information that is collected in studies. Most research relies on pure recollection of memory rather than data. This makes self-reports complicated and immeasurable. Audiences interpret the media in their own terms and any debate for or against this can be argued, and depending on the circumstances, won by either side. Each individuals� actions and effects on those actions will depend solely on the situation. The Uses and Gratifications theory does not properly account for these natural occurrences but does hold a valid argument that each individual has unique uses to which the media attempts to meet their gratifications. Criticisms of early U&G research focus on the fact that it (a) relied heavily on self-reports, (b) was unsophisticated about the social origin of the needs that audiences bring to the media, (c) was too uncritical of the possible dysfunction both for self and society of certain kinds of audience satisfaction, and (d) was too captivated by the inventive diversity of audiences used to pay attention to the constraints of the text (Katz, 1987). Theorist Explanation �The nature of the theory underlying Uses and Gratifications research is not totally clear,� (Blumler, 1979) This makes the line between gratification and satisfaction blurred, calling into question whether or not we only seek what we desire or actually enjoy it. 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