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Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm-brought out their Four Theories of the Press which went a long way in establishing a typology in the minds of journalism educators and students. Fred S. Siebert is Director of the School of Journalism and Communications at the University of Illinois. Theodore Peterson is Associate Professor of Journalism and Communications at the University of Illinois. Wilbur Schramm, former Dean of the Communications Division of the University of Illinois, is Professor of Journalism and Communications at Stanford University. �in the simplest terms, the question behind this book is, why is the press as it is? Why does it apparently serve different purposes and appear in widely different forms in different countries? Why, for example, id the press of the Soviet Union so different from our own, and the press of Argentina, so different from that of Great Britain? � One cannot understand the news media without understanding the nature of the state, the system of political parties, the pattern of relations between economic and political interests, and the development of civil society, among other elements of social structure. If we want to address a question such as �why is the press as it is?� we must turn to comparative analysis In tracing the origins of the four theories, for example, Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm, make reference almost exclusively to three countries- the United States, to which they trace the libertarian and social responsibility theories; Britain, to which they trace both the authoritarian and, along with the United States, the libertarian theories; and the Soviet Union. The little volume (in paperback since 1963) has become standard reading in journalism departments and schools and has done much to legitimize the fourth theory-social responsibility. Almost every article and book dealing with philosophical bases for journalism has referred to this book, commented on it or quoted from it. Its impact has unquestionably been great in spite of what some believe are significant weaknesses. Presented here are four major theories behind the functioning of the world's presses: (1) the Authoritarian theory, which developed in the late Renaissance and was based on the idea that truth is the product of a few wise men; (2) the Libertarian theory, which arose from the works of men like Milton, Locke, Mill, and Jefferson and avowed that the search for truth is one of man's natural rights; (3) the Social Responsibility theory of the modern day: equal radio and television time for political candidates, the obligations of the newspaper in a one-paper town, etc.; (4) the Soviet Communist theory, an expanded and more positive version of the old Authoritarian theory. Here are the main characterstics of each of these theories. Authoritarian: Developed in the 16th and 17th centuries, Eng l a n d T h i s t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e 1 6 t h a n d 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s �n o t i c e t h a t t h e i n c e p t i o n o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n p r e s s c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e p r i n t m e d i a . T h e f i r s t G u t e n b e r g B i b l e a p p e a r e d i n 1 4 5 6 . B y t h e e n d o f t h a t c e n t u r y , 4 4 y e a r s l a t e r , p r i n t i n g o p e r ations existed in 12 Europeans countries, and the continent was flooded with 20 millions volumes of 7,000 titles in 35,000 different editions. And this theory was mainly based on absolute power of the monarchy (truth). It was essential that the Press supports monarchy and couldn�t criticize it. This approach was designed to protect the established social order, setting clear limits to media freedom and ensure that it is not the media which must talk about people and their problems in any manner. According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to follow its bidding. Absolute power of the monarchy The government consists of a very limited and small ruling-class and media are not allowed to print or broadcast anything which could undermine the established authority of the government. The government is infallible and the media professionals are therefore not allowed to have any independence within the media organization. Foreign media are subordinate to the established authority, in that all imported media products are controlled by the state, Press supports monarchy Authorities had the right to maintain peace and security and therefore make rules that ensured these by way of censorship, essentially, the press had to do the government� bidding. The government would decide what the public would read and restrict anything that threatens peace and security (of the state). Information was power and the government guarded it for public welfare. The basis of this theory is that humans are not rational enough and they need to told what is good and bad. The main function of the press was to support the policies and actions of the state and inform the public about them Can�t criticize monarchy No printing that could undermine the established authority or offense to existing political set up Any offense to the existing political values should be avoided and the government may punish anyone who questions the state's ideology Press must be licensed Registration of the media by the state and the Media professionals are not allowed to have any independence within the media organization. Press could be privately or publicly owned, but the restrictions imposed on all media had to be followed. Licensing was brought in and every publisher had to get a license. The main purpose of this was to revoke licenses if need be. if any publisher would allow content that criticizes the government, their license would be revoked and they could even be punishable by death. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression. This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism. The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments. The state, as the highest expression of institutionalized structure, supersedes the individual and makes it possible for the individual to acquire and develop a stable and harmonious life. Mass communication, then, supports the state and the government in power so that total society may advance and the state may be viable and attain its objectives. The State (the elite that runs the state) directs the citizenry, which is not considered competent and interested enough to make critical political decisions. One man or an elite group is placed in a leadership role. As the group or person controls society generally it (or he or she) also controls the mass media since they are recognized as vital instruments of social control. The mass media, under authoritarianism, are educators and propagandists by which the power elite exercise social control. Generally the media are privately owned, although the leader or his elite group may own units in the total communication system. A basic: assumption a person engaged in journalism is so engaged as a special privilege granted by the national leadership. He, therefore, owes an obligation to the leadership. This press concept has formed and now forms, the basis for many media systems of the world. The mass media, under authoritarianism, have only as much freedom as the national leadership at any particular time is willing to permit. This theory essentially applies to authoritarian societies, but can surface in less authoritarian societies (particularly in times of war, terrorism). It depends on the medium/ media of press subject to a greater control in some countries. There are certain assumptions attached to the Authoritarian approach, which are as follows: a) Press should do nothing to undermine vested power and interests; Press should be subordinate to vested power and authority; b) Press should avoid acting in contravention of prevailing moral and political values c)Criminalization of editorial attacks on vested power, deviations from official policy, violation of moral codes d) Censorship justified in the application of these principles; e). Media is an instrument/ mouthpiece to publicize and propagandise government ideology and actions. f) Absolute power of state versus subservience of the individual press. These assumptions in turn help us in understanding the basic premise of the theory. It explains the principles on which this theory is based and the approach which the authoritarian society used to follow. The biggest examples of this theory are: Fascist regimes, some African countries, communist countries, Aspects of apartheid etc. Libertarian: This theory is just in contrast to the authoritarian approach to media. The libertarian press concept is generally traced back to England and the American colonies of the seventeenth century. Giving rise to the libertarian press theory was the philosophy that looked upon man as a rational animal with inherent natural rights. One of these rights was the right to pursue truth, and potential interferes (kings, governors et al) would (or should) be restrained. Exponents of this press movement during the seventeenth century, and the 200 years which followed, included Milton, Locke, Erskine, Jefferson, and John Stuart Mill. In 1789, the French, in their Declaration of the Rights of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to hear". By far, however, the most eloquent expression of the right to free press is from page 16 of John Stuart Mill's On Liberty: "If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, and only one person was of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind. The peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is that it robs the human race, posterity as well as the existing generation. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opportunity to exchange error for truth; if wrong, they lose what is almost as great a benefit - the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by its collision with error." (Mill) Mill's ideas are also presentable in the form of four arguments against censorship: � If we silence an opinion, for all we know, we are silencing truth � A wrong opinion may contain a grain of truth necessary for finding the whole truth � Commonly held opinions tend to become prejudices unless forced to be defended � Unless commonly held opinions are contested from time to time, they lose their vitality The founding fathers of this theory (Milton, Locke, Mills) propounded that Press informs, entertains, sells and helps in discovering the truth. It is a free marketplace of ideas where anyone can publish his/ her views and expressions but cannot defame or be obscene. There shall be minimum checks and balances by the government. Individual liberties were stressed by these philosophers, along with a basic trust in the people to take intelligent decisions (generally) if a climate of free expression existed. Here media enjoys an absolute freedom of expression. Its prominent features are as follows: a) Competitive exposure of alternative viewpoints. b) Attacks on the government's policies are accepted and even encouraged: the media as a watchdog. c) Journalists and media professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media organization. d) There is no explicit connection between the government and the media. e) The press is free from censorship f) It is accountable to the law for any consequences of its activities that infringe other individuals' rights or the legitimate claims of the society. g) Free press means that all forms of media must be totally unregulated. The background of the libertarians is in rebelling against authoritarian theory early libertarians argued that there should be no laws governing media operations. The Early Libertarians argued that if individuals could be freed from arbitrary limits on communication imposed by church and state, they would "naturally" follow the dictates of their conscience, seek truth, engage in public debate, and ultimately create a better life for themselves and others. They believed strongly in the power of unrestricted public debate and discussion to create more natural way of structuring society. In Areopagitica, a powerful libertarian published in 1644 by, John Milton asserted that: �give me liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience� �though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the earth, so Truth be in the field, we do injuriously by licensing and prohibiting to misdoubt her strength. Let her (Truth) and falsehood grapple, who ever knew Truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter.� "Let all with something to say be free to express themselves. The true and sound will survive. The false and unsound will be vanquished. Government should keep out of the battle and not weigh the odds in favor of one side or the other.� Thomas Jefferson, 1787 said: Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. These libertarian principles were also adopted in the "Bill of Rights". (First 1 amendment to U.S. constitution: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.). It asserted that all individuals have natural rights no government, community, or group can unduly infringe upon or take away. The ability to exercise dissent, to band together with others to resist laws that people find to be wrong, to print or broadcast ideas, opinions and beliefs- all of these rights are proclaimed as central to democratic self-government. The ethics in multicultural or pluralistic societies vary from place to place; hence there is always complaint against the media of each other's society. This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over the power of State. this theory also entails certain ASSUMPTIONS that help in understanding the basic premise of this theory: a) Press should be free from any external censorship; journalists and media professionals have full autonomy within the media organization b) Publication and distribution should be accessible to any individual or group with a permit or license; c) Attacks on governments or parties are fully accepted and even encouraged, should not be punishable; d) the individual should be free to publish whatever he or she likes, No coercion to publish anything; e) Freedom of access to information. no restrictions on import or export of media messages across the national frontiers the basic of this theory is free market as foundation of free media.Another strand in liberal tradition presents Media as representative agency or as a watchdog protecting the public (individuals rights), overseeing the state. Wherein the Watchdog reveals and abuses in the exercise of state authority. This role overrides all other functions of the media and dictates the form in which the media should be organised, i.e. the free market. However, Freedom of press can be abused. Absolute freedom is anarchy. Abolition of censorship; but, also the introduction of press laws designed to protect individual rights (protection of reputation, privacy, moral development of individuals or groups, security of the state) could override the right of the press. The libertarians had a very modern approach which was quintessential to serve the purposes of the modern society based on rise of democracy, religious freedom, expansion of economic freedom, philosophical climate of the enlightenment, undermined authoritarianism emphasis on personal freedom and democracy. The reason behind the said philosophy was that people are rational and can distinguish between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil and therefore, be allowed to express their views and expressions. Through the years many new ideas were grafted on to early press libetarianism: One of these, for example, was the general acceptance of a kind of obligation to keep the public abreast of governmental activities, or being a kind of fourth branch of government supplementing the executive, legislative and judicial branches reflecting public opinion. Communist: The communist theory of the press arose, along with the theory of communism itself, in the first quarter of the present century. Karl Marx was its father, drawing heavily on the ideas of his fellow German, George W. F. Hegel. The mass media in a communist society, said Marx, were to function basically to perpetuate and expand the socialist system. Transmission of social policy, not searching for the truth, was to be the main rationale for existence of a communist media system. The Soviet theory differs from the authoritarian theory in that the media organizations have a certain responsibility to meet the wishes of their audience. This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press. The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests. With the revolution in Russia in 1917, and practice of Marxism, there appeared a very different approach to deal with media compare with libertarian and authoritarian. The media was tied to overall communist ideas and defined in a very different way. The theory to control media possessed following features: a) Closely tied to a specific ideology�the communist ideology. Media should act in the interests of and be controlled by the working class; Society has right to use censorship and other legal measures to prevent and punish antisocial publication. Media should reflect complete and objective view of world and society in terms of Marxist-Leninist principles. b) The media is collective agitator, propagandist and educator in the building of communism. both the soviet and the authoritarian acknowledge the government as superior to the media institutions. c) media organizations in this system are not intended to be privately owned and are to serve the interests of the working class No private ownership of the media. d) The government is superior to the media institutions. Government has �influence� over the press. e) The media is supposed to be serious. Press contributes to success of the state. The mass media in the Soviet model are expected to be self-regulatory with regard to the content of their messages f) The soviet theory does not favour free expression, but proposes a positive role for the media, the society and the world. Media should support communist movements everywhere g) Only legal party members can publish and no one can criticize party. Media should perform positive functions for society, such as socialisation (to make people conform to desirable norms), education, the supply of information, motivation and mobilisation of the masses; Mass media, under this theory, are instruments of government and integral parts of the State. They are owned and operated by the State and directed by the Communist Party or its agencies. Criticism is permitted in the media (i. e. criticism of failure to achieve goals), but criticism of basic ideology is forbidden. Communist theory, like that of authoritarianism, is based on the premise that the masses are too fickle and too ignorant and unconcerned with government to be entrusted with governmental responsibilities. Thus, the media have no real concern with giving them much information about governmental activities or of its leaders. Mass media are to do what is best for the state and party; and what is best determined by the elite leadership of State and Party. Whatever the media do to contribute to communism and the Socialist State is moral; whatever is done to harm or hinder the growth of communism is immoral. Under the Communist concept, media are tools that serve as implements of revelation (by revealing purposes and goals of party leaders) as well as instruments of unity and consensus. The main difference between authoritarian and Communist systems is ownership. In authoritarian systems, press can be privately owned as opposed to state ownership in Communist systems. Social Responsibility: This concept, a product of mid-twentieth century America, is said by its proponents to have its roots in libertarian theory. But it goes beyond the libertarian theory, in that it places more emphasis on the press's responsibility to society than on the press's freedom. This theory, while maintaining the same objectives as the Libertarian, does not believe that under the Libertarian theory that these goals can be (or have been) achieved to their fullest potential. The Social Responsibility theory rose out of the mass media community itself who post World War II were concerned by the function prescribed versus the actual role that the media had taken It is seen as a higher level, theoretically, than libertarianism-a kind of moral and intellectual evolutionary trip from discredited old, libertarianism to a new or perfected libertarianism where things are forced to work as they really should have worked under libertarian theory. The explainers and defenders of this theory maintain that they are libertarians, but socially responsible libertarians, contrasted presumably with other libertarians who (if their views and actions do not agree with those of the new libertarians) are not socially responsible. This theory of the press has been drawn largely from a report published in 1947 by the Hutchins Commission. Emerging from the Commission's publications and solidified in the literature of journalism by Four Theories of the Press, this new theory maintains that the importance of the press in modern society makes it absolutely necessary that an obligation of social responsibility be imposed on the media of mass communication. This theory keeps certain areas free for the Press but at the same time puts lot of responsibility on media. the media is not just seen as an enterprise like others in the business sector of any society, but due to its unique nature, society expects a particular role which media must play in getting rid of social evils, educating people, criticizing government policies and exposing other wrong doings in a society. The sense of responsibility has been emphasized more in this theory as compared to any other. The basic premise of the theory is as follows: a) Media has certain obligations to society. b) It must show truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance. c) The media should be free but self-regulated (codes of conduct, and ethics) d) The media according to this theory is pluralistic: diversity of society, various points of view, forum for ideas. e) The media ownership is a public trust. Therefore, a journalist is accountable to his audience / readers. According to the theory media must be controlled by community opinion and ethics. Media cannot violate people�s rights. Press can be free and be comprehensive and objective but at the same time must be socially responsible. The social responsibility theory is an outgrowth of the libertarian theory. However, social responsibility goes beyond "objective" reporting to "interpretive" reporting. media has certain obligations to society which it must fulfill in all circumstances: � In formativeness � Truth � Accuracy � Objectivity � Balance Media as a whole is pluralized, indicating "a reflection of the diversity of society as well as access to various points of view�. A truthful, complete account of the news is not necessarily enough today, notes the Commission on the Freedom of the Press: "It is no longer enough to report the fact truthfully. It is now necessary to report the truth about the fact." Today's complex world often necessitates analysis, explanation, and interpretation. The emerging theory does not deny the rationality of man, although it puts far less confidence in it than the libertarian theory, but it does seem to deny that man is innately motivated to search for truth and to accept it as his guide. Under the social responsibility theory, man is viewed not so much irrational as lethargic. He is capable of using his reason but he is loath to do so. If man is to remain free, he must live by reason instead of passively accepting what he sees, hears, and feels. Therefore, the more alert elements of the community must goad him into the exercise of his reason. Without such goading man is not likely to be moved to seek truth. The languor which keeps him from using his gift of reason extends to all public discussion. Man's aim is not to find truth but to satisfy his immediate needs and desires. It is the press, therefore, that must be the "more alert element" and keep the public informed, for an informed populace is the cornerstone of democracy. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm also note that "freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an absolute right, as under pure libertarian theory....One's right to free expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and against vital social interests.� Compare: Libertarian theory rests on a concept of negative liberty, "freedom from", or more precisely "freedom from external constraint." Social responsibility theory rests on a concept of positive liberty, "freedom for", or freedom to achieve goals by any ethical means necessary. Social responsibility theory adds to or corrects for things that the founding fathers neglected to consider with freedom of the press. Today's large media conglomerates, however, may not function naturally as a public forum, where all ideas are shared and available. "The owners and managers of the press determine which persons, which facts, which versions of these facts, shall reach the public," writes the Commission. In this same light, Siebert, Peterson and Schramm warn: �...the power and near monopoly position of the media impose on them an obligation to be socially responsible, to see that all sides are fairly presented and that the public has enough information to decide; and that if the media do not take on themselves such responsibility it may be necessary for some other agency of the public to enforce it.� Four theories of the pressAuthoritarian libertarianSocial responsibilityMarxistDeveloped 16th and 17th century, EnglandAdopted by England after 1688 in U.S.In U.S. in 20th centuryIn Soviet Union, although similar to NazisOut of �Philosophy of absolute power of monarchy, his government, or both.Writings of Milton, Locke, Mill and general philosophy of rationalism and natural rightsWriting of W.E. Hocking, media codes, Commission on Freedom of PressMarxists Leninist Stalinist thought, with some Hengel tossed inPurpose Support and advance policies o f the governmentInform, entertain, sell�but primarily discover truth and check on government,Inform, entertain, sell- but chiefly to raise conflict to the plane of discussionTo contribute to success and continuance of the system and the partyWho can use media?Whoever gets royal patent or permission Anyone with the economic means to do soAnyone who has something to sayLoyal and orthodox party membersHow media controlled?Government patents, guilds, licensing, sometimes censorship Self-righting process of truth. �marketplace of ideas� and courtsCommunity opinion, consumer action, pro ethicsSurveillance and economic or political action by the governmentWhat forbiddenCriticism of political machinery and officials in powerDefamation, obscenity, indecency, wartime seditionSerious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social interestsCriticism of party objectivesOwnership Private or publicChiefly privatePrivate unless government has to take over to ensure public servicepublicEssential differences from othersInstrument for effecting government policy, though not necessarily government ownedInstrument for checking on government and meeting other needs of societyMedia must assume obligation of social responsibility, and if not, someone make sure they doState-owned and closely controlled media existing solely as an arm of the state Developmental The developmental model was seen to have arisen out of a combination of Communist ideas, anti-Americanism, and social-responsibility ideals. characteristic of this concept as being the idea that individual rights must be subordinated to the larger goals of nation-building and thus must support authority. The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often equated with government propaganda. Conclusion Not confined to the extent of theories, the media always faces (and is open to) criticism and social scientists always keep this debate open as how best media could be used to improve functioning of civil society and promotion of democratic sense and practices. In their view if people's knowledge, understandings, capabilities, and actions are manufactured, it simultaneously follows that they can be developed, improved, and individualized in proper (ideal- democratic) circumstances. Among these circumstances, proper communication networks are inevitable. Because of new developments, the relationship among the state, private sectors, markets, and civil society profoundly changed during the 1980s. In politically and economically advanced societies the change is based on new information and telecommunications technologies, which affected the media industries in terms of economic restructuring, and on a new social and political environment, as reflected by media contents. Training and continuing development of professionalism can be done to advance and nurture balanced and impartial news presentation. 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